Typing

PEP 484, which provides a specification about what a type system should look like in Python3, introduced the concept of type hints. Moreover, to better understand the type hints design philosophy, it is crucial to read PEP 483 that would be helpful to aid a pythoneer to understand reasons why Python introduce a type system. The main goal of this cheat sheet is to show some common usage about type hints in Python3.

Without type check

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on python type checking.

python

def fib(n):
    a, b = 0, 1
    for _ in range(n):
        yield a
        b, a = a + b, b

print([n for n in fib(3.6)])

output:

bash

# errors will not be detected until runtime

$ python fib.py
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "fib.py", line 8, in <module>
    print([n for n in fib(3.5)])
  File "fib.py", line 8, in <listcomp>
    print([n for n in fib(3.5)])
  File "fib.py", line 3, in fib
    for _ in range(n):
TypeError: 'float' object cannot be interpreted as an integer

With type check

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on python type hints.

python

# give a type hint
from typing import Generator

def fib(n: int) -> Generator:
    a: int = 0
    b: int = 1
    for _ in range(n):
        yield a
        b, a = a + b, b

print([n for n in fib(3.6)])

output:

bash

# errors will be detected before running

$ mypy --strict fib.py
fib.py:12: error: Argument 1 to "fib" has incompatible type "float"; expected "int"

Basic types

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on basic types.

python

import io
import re

from collections import deque, namedtuple
from typing import (
    Dict,
    List,
    Tuple,
    Set,
    Deque,
    NamedTuple,
    IO,
    Pattern,
    Match,
    Text,
    Optional,
    Sequence,
    Iterable,
    Mapping,
    MutableMapping,
    Any,
)

# without initializing
x: int

# any type
y: Any
y = 1
y = "1"

# built-in
var_int: int = 1
var_str: str = "Hello Typing"
var_byte: bytes = b"Hello Typing"
var_bool: bool = True
var_float: float = 1.
var_unicode: Text = u'\u2713'

# could be none
var_could_be_none: Optional[int] = None
var_could_be_none = 1

# collections
var_set: Set[int] = {i for i in range(3)}
var_dict: Dict[str, str] = {"foo": "Foo"}
var_list: List[int] = [i for i in range(3)]
var_static_length_Tuple: Tuple[int, int, int] = (1, 2, 3)
var_dynamic_length_Tuple: Tuple[int, ...] = (i for i in range(10, 3))
var_deque: Deque = deque([1, 2, 3])
var_nametuple: NamedTuple = namedtuple('P', ['x', 'y'])

# io
var_io_str: IO[str] = io.StringIO("Hello String")
var_io_byte: IO[bytes] = io.BytesIO(b"Hello Bytes")
var_io_file_str: IO[str] = open(__file__)
var_io_file_byte: IO[bytes] = open(__file__, 'rb')

# re
p: Pattern = re.compile("(https?)://([^/\r\n]+)(/[^\r\n]*)?")
m: Optional[Match] = p.match("https://www.python.org/")

# duck types: list-like
var_seq_list: Sequence[int] = [1, 2, 3]
var_seq_tuple: Sequence[int] = (1, 2, 3)
var_iter_list: Iterable[int] = [1, 2, 3]
var_iter_tuple: Iterable[int] = (1, 2, 3)

# duck types: dict-like
var_map_dict: Mapping[str, str] = {"foo": "Foo"}
var_mutable_dict: MutableMapping[str, str] = {"bar": "Bar"}

Functions

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on functions.

python

from typing import Generator, Callable

# function
def gcd(a: int, b: int) -> int:
    while b:
        a, b = b, a % b
    return a

# callback
def fun(cb: Callable[[int, int], int]) -> int:
    return cb(55, 66)

# lambda
f: Callable[[int], int] = lambda x: x * 2

Classes

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on classes.

python

from typing import ClassVar, Dict, List

class Foo:

    x: int = 1  # instance variable. default = 1
    y: ClassVar[str] = "class var"  # class variable

    def __init__(self) -> None:
        self.i: List[int] = [0]

    def foo(self, a: int, b: str) -> Dict[int, str]:
        return {a: b}

foo = Foo()
foo.x = 123

print(foo.x)
print(foo.i)
print(Foo.y)
print(foo.foo(1, "abc"))

Generator

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on generator.

python

from typing import Generator

# Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]
def fib(n: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
    a: int = 0
    b: int = 1
    while n > 0:
        yield a
        b, a = a + b, b
        n -= 1

g: Generator = fib(10)
i: Iterator[int] = (x for x in range(3))

Asynchronous Generator

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on asynchronous generator.

python

import asyncio

from typing import AsyncGenerator, AsyncIterator

async def fib(n: int) -> AsyncGenerator:
    a: int = 0
    b: int = 1
    while n > 0:
        await asyncio.sleep(0.1)
        yield a

        b, a = a + b, b
        n -= 1

async def main() -> None:
    async for f in fib(10):
        print(f)

    ag: AsyncIterator = (f async for f in fib(10))

loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
loop.run_until_complete(main())

Context Manager

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on context manager.

python

from typing import ContextManager, Generator, IO
from contextlib import contextmanager

@contextmanager
def open_file(name: str) -> Generator:
    f = open(name)
    yield f
    f.close()

cm: ContextManager[IO] = open_file(__file__)
with cm as f:
    print(f.read())

Asynchronous Context Manager

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on asynchronous context manager.

python

import asyncio

from typing import AsyncContextManager, AsyncGenerator, IO
from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

# need python 3.7 or above
@asynccontextmanager
async def open_file(name: str) -> AsyncGenerator:
    await asyncio.sleep(0.1)
    f = open(name)
    yield f
    await asyncio.sleep(0.1)
    f.close()

async def main() -> None:
    acm: AsyncContextManager[IO] = open_file(__file__)
    async with acm as f:
        print(f.read())

loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
loop.run_until_complete(main())

Avoid `None` access

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on avoid none access.

python

import re

from typing import Pattern, Dict, Optional

# like c++
# std::regex url("(https?)://([^/\r\n]+)(/[^\r\n]*)?");
# std::regex color("^#?([a-f0-9]{6}|[a-f0-9]{3})$");

url: Pattern = re.compile("(https?)://([^/\r\n]+)(/[^\r\n]*)?")
color: Pattern = re.compile("^#?([a-f0-9]{6}|[a-f0-9]{3})$")

x: Dict[str, Pattern] = {"url": url, "color": color}
y: Optional[Pattern] = x.get("baz", None)

print(y.match("https://www.python.org/"))

output:

bash

$ mypy --strict foo.py
foo.py:15: error: Item "None" of "Optional[Pattern[Any]]" has no attribute "match"

Positional-only arguments

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on positional-only arguments.

python

# define arguments with names beginning with __

def fib(__n: int) -> int:  # positional only arg
    a, b = 0, 1
    for _ in range(__n):
        b, a = a + b, b
    return a


def gcd(*, a: int, b: int) -> int:  # keyword only arg
    while b:
        a, b = b, a % b
    return a


print(fib(__n=10))  # error
print(gcd(10, 5))   # error

output:

bash

mypy --strict foo.py
foo.py:1: note: "fib" defined here
foo.py:14: error: Unexpected keyword argument "__n" for "fib"
foo.py:15: error: Too many positional arguments for "gcd"

Multiple return values

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on multiple return values.

python

from typing import Tuple, Iterable, Union

def foo(x: int, y: int) -> Tuple[int, int]:
    return x, y

# or

def bar(x: int, y: str) -> Iterable[Union[int, str]]:
    # XXX: not recommend declaring in this way
    return x, y

a: int
b: int
a, b = foo(1, 2)      # ok
c, d = bar(3, "bar")  # ok

Optional Type

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on optional type.

python

from typing import List, Union

def first(l: List[Union[int, None]]) -> Union[int, None]:
    return None if len(l) == 0 else l[0]

first([None])

# equal to

from typing import List, Optional

def first(l: List[Optional[int]]) -> Optional[int]:
    return None if len(l) == 0 else l[0]

first([None])

Be careful of `Optional`

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on be careful of optional.

python

from typing import cast, Optional

def fib(n):
    a, b = 0, 1
    for _ in range(n):
        b, a = a + b, b
    return a

def cal(n: Optional[int]) -> None:
    print(fib(n))

cal(None)

output:

bash

# mypy will not detect errors
$ mypy foo.py

Explicitly declare

python

from typing import Optional

def fib(n: int) -> int:  # declare n to be int
    a, b = 0, 1
    for _ in range(n):
        b, a = a + b, b
    return a

def cal(n: Optional[int]) -> None:
    print(fib(n))

output:

bash

# mypy can detect errors even we do not check None
$ mypy --strict foo.py
foo.py:11: error: Argument 1 to "fib" has incompatible type "Optional[int]"; expected "int"

Be careful of casting

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on python type casting.

python

from typing import cast, Optional

def gcd(a: int, b: int) -> int:
    while b:
        a, b = b, a % b
    return a

def cal(a: Optional[int], b: Optional[int]) -> None:
    # XXX: Avoid casting
    ca, cb = cast(int, a), cast(int, b)
    print(gcd(ca, cb))

cal(None, None)

output:

bash

# mypy will not detect type errors
$ mypy --strict foo.py

Forward references

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on forward references.

Based on PEP 484, if we want to reference a type before it has been declared, we have to use string literal to imply that there is a type of that name later on in the file.

python

from typing import Optional


class Tree:
    def __init__(
        self, data: int,
        left: Optional["Tree"],  # Forward references.
        right: Optional["Tree"]
    ) -> None:
        self.data = data
        self.left = left
        self.right = right

TIP

There are some issues that mypy does not complain about Forward References. Get further information from Issue#948.

python

class A:
    def __init__(self, a: A) -> None:  # should fail
        self.a = a

output:

bash

$ mypy --strict type.py
$ echo $?
0
$ python type.py   # get runtime fail
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "type.py", line 1, in <module>
    class A:
  File "type.py", line 2, in A
    def __init__(self, a: A) -> None:  # should fail
NameError: name 'A' is not defined

Postponed Evaluation of Annotations

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on postponed evaluation of annotations.

New in Python 3.7

PEP 563 - Postponed Evaluation of Annotations

Before Python 3.7

python

>>> class A:
...     def __init__(self, a: A) -> None:
...         self._a = a
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in A
NameError: name 'A' is not defined

After Python 3.7 (include 3.7)

python

>>> from __future__ import annotations
>>> class A:
...     def __init__(self, a: A) -> None:
...         self._a = a
...

TIP

Annotation can only be used within the scope which names have already existed. Therefore, forward reference does not support the case which names are not available in the current scope. Postponed evaluation of annotations will become the default behavior in Python 4.0.

Type Alias

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on type alias.

Like typedef or using in c/c++

cpp

#include <iostream>
#include <string>
#include <regex>
#include <vector>

typedef std::string Url;
template<typename T> using Vector = std::vector<T>;

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
    Url url = "https://python.org";
    std::regex p("(https?)://([^/\r\n]+)(/[^\r\n]*)?");
    bool m = std::regex_match(url, p);
    Vector<int> v = {1, 2};

    std::cout << m << std::endl;
    for (auto it : v) std::cout << it << std::endl;
    return 0;
}

Type aliases are defined by simple variable assignments

python

import re

from typing import Pattern, List

# Like typedef, using in c/c++

# PEP 484 recommend capitalizing alias names
Url = str

url: Url = "https://www.python.org/"

p: Pattern = re.compile("(https?)://([^/\r\n]+)(/[^\r\n]*)?")
m = p.match(url)

Vector = List[int]
v: Vector = [1., 2.]

Using NewType

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on using newtype.

Unlike alias, NewType returns a separate type but is identical to the original type at runtime.

python

from sqlalchemy import Column, String, Integer
from sqlalchemy.ext.declarative import declarative_base
from typing import NewType, Any

# check mypy #2477
Base: Any = declarative_base()

# create a new type
Id = NewType('Id', int) # not equal alias, it's a 'new type'

class User(Base):
    __tablename__ = 'User'
    id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
    age = Column(Integer, nullable=False)
    name = Column(String, nullable=False)

    def __init__(self, id: Id, age: int, name: str) -> None:
        self.id = id
        self.age = age
        self.name = name

# create users
user1 = User(Id(1), 62, "Guido van Rossum") # ok
user2 = User(2, 48, "David M. Beazley")     # error

output:

bash

$ python foo.py
$ mypy --ignore-missing-imports foo.py
foo.py:24: error: Argument 1 to "User" has incompatible type "int"; expected "Id"

Using `TypeVar` as template

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on using typevar as template.

Like c++ template <typename T>

cpp

#include <iostream>

template <typename T>
T add(T x, T y) {
    return x + y;
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
    std::cout << add(1, 2) << std::endl;
    std::cout << add(1., 2.) << std::endl;
    return 0;
}

Python using TypeVar

python

from typing import TypeVar

T = TypeVar("T")

def add(x: T, y: T) -> T:
    return x + y

add(1, 2)
add(1., 2.)

Using `TypeVar` and `Generic` as class template

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on using typevar and generic as class template.

Like c++ template <typename T> class

cpp

#include <iostream>

template<typename T>
class Foo {
public:
    Foo(T foo) {
        foo_ = foo;
    }
    T Get() {
        return foo_;
    }
private:
    T foo_;
};

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
    Foo<int> f(123);
    std::cout << f.Get() << std::endl;
    return 0;
}

Define a generic class in Python

python

from typing import Generic, TypeVar

T = TypeVar("T")

class Foo(Generic[T]):
    def __init__(self, foo: T) -> None:
        self.foo = foo

    def get(self) -> T:
        return self.foo

f: Foo[str] = Foo("Foo")
v: int = f.get()

output:

bash

$ mypy --strict foo.py
foo.py:13: error: Incompatible types in assignment (expression has type "str", variable has type "int")

Scoping rules for `TypeVar`

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on scoping rules for typevar.

TypeVar used in different generic function will be inferred to be different types.

python

from typing import TypeVar

T = TypeVar("T")

def foo(x: T) -> T:
    return x

def bar(y: T) -> T:
    return y

a: int = foo(1)    # ok: T is inferred to be int
b: int = bar("2")  # error: T is inferred to be str

output:

bash

$ mypy --strict foo.py
foo.py:12: error: Incompatible types in assignment (expression has type "str", variable has type "int")

TypeVar used in a generic class will be inferred to be same types.

python

from typing import TypeVar, Generic

T = TypeVar("T")

class Foo(Generic[T]):

    def foo(self, x: T) -> T:
        return x

    def bar(self, y: T) -> T:
        return y

f: Foo[int] = Foo()
a: int = f.foo(1)    # ok: T is inferred to be int
b: str = f.bar("2")  # error: T is expected to be int

output:

bash

$ mypy --strict foo.py
foo.py:15: error: Incompatible types in assignment (expression has type "int", variable has type "str")
foo.py:15: error: Argument 1 to "bar" of "Foo" has incompatible type "str"; expected "int"

TypeVar used in a method but did not match any parameters which declare in Generic can be inferred to be different types.

python

from typing import TypeVar, Generic

T = TypeVar("T")
S = TypeVar("S")

class Foo(Generic[T]):    # S does not match params

    def foo(self, x: T, y: S) -> S:
        return y

    def bar(self, z: S) -> S:
        return z

f: Foo[int] = Foo()
a: str = f.foo(1, "foo")  # S is inferred to be str
b: int = f.bar(12345678)  # S is inferred to be int

output:

bash

$  mypy --strict foo.py

TypeVar should not appear in body of method/function if it is unbound type.

python

from typing import TypeVar, Generic

T = TypeVar("T")
S = TypeVar("S")

def foo(x: T) -> None:
    a: T = x    # ok
    b: S = 123  # error: invalid type

output:

bash

$ mypy --strict foo.py
foo.py:8: error: Invalid type "foo.S"

Restricting to a fixed set of possible types

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on restricting to a fixed set of possible types.

T = TypeVar('T', ClassA, ...) means we create a type variable with a value restriction.

python

from typing import TypeVar

# restrict T = int or T = float
T = TypeVar("T", int, float)

def add(x: T, y: T) -> T:
    return x + y

add(1, 2)
add(1., 2.)
add("1", 2)
add("hello", "world")

output:

bash

# mypy can detect wrong type
$ mypy --strict foo.py
foo.py:10: error: Value of type variable "T" of "add" cannot be "object"
foo.py:11: error: Value of type variable "T" of "add" cannot be "str"

`TypeVar` with an upper bound

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on typevar with an upper bound.

T = TypeVar('T', bound=BaseClass) means we create a type variable with an upper bound. The concept is similar to polymorphism in c++.

cpp

#include <iostream>

class Shape {
public:
    Shape(double width, double height) {
        width_ = width;
        height_ = height;
    };
    virtual double Area() = 0;
protected:
    double width_;
    double height_;
};

class Rectangle: public Shape {
public:
    Rectangle(double width, double height)
    :Shape(width, height)
    {};

    double Area() {
        return width_ * height_;
    };
};

class Triangle: public Shape {
public:
    Triangle(double width, double height)
    :Shape(width, height)
    {};

    double Area() {
        return width_ * height_ / 2;
    };
};

double Area(Shape &s) {
    return s.Area();
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
    Rectangle r(1., 2.);
    Triangle t(3., 4.);

    std::cout << Area(r) << std::endl;
    std::cout << Area(t) << std::endl;
    return 0;
}

Like c++, create a base class and TypeVar which bounds to the base class. Then, static type checker will take every subclass as type of base class.

python

from typing import TypeVar


class Shape:
    def __init__(self, width: float, height: float) -> None:
        self.width = width
        self.height = height

    def area(self) -> float:
        return 0


class Rectangle(Shape):
    def area(self) -> float:
        width: float = self.width
        height: float = self.height
        return width * height


class Triangle(Shape):
    def area(self) -> float:
        width: float = self.width
        height: float = self.height
        return width * height / 2


S = TypeVar("S", bound=Shape)


def area(s: S) -> float:
    return s.area()


r: Rectangle = Rectangle(1, 2)
t: Triangle = Triangle(3, 4)
i: int = 5566

print(area(r))
print(area(t))
print(area(i))

output:

bash

$ mypy --strict foo.py
foo.py:40: error: Value of type variable "S" of "area" cannot be "int"

@overload

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on overload.

Sometimes, we use Union to infer that the return of a function has multiple different types. However, type checker cannot distinguish which type do we want. Therefore, following snippet shows that type checker cannot determine which type is correct.

python

from typing import List, Union


class Array(object):
    def __init__(self, arr: List[int]) -> None:
        self.arr = arr

    def __getitem__(self, i: Union[int, str]) -> Union[int, str]:
        if isinstance(i, int):
            return self.arr[i]
        if isinstance(i, str):
            return str(self.arr[int(i)])


arr = Array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
x:int = arr[1]
y:str = arr["2"]

output:

bash

$ mypy --strict foo.py
foo.py:16: error: Incompatible types in assignment (expression has type "Union[int, str]", variable has type "int")
foo.py:17: error: Incompatible types in assignment (expression has type "Union[int, str]", variable has type "str")

Although we can use cast to solve the problem, it cannot avoid typo and cast is not safe.

python

from typing import  List, Union, cast


class Array(object):
    def __init__(self, arr: List[int]) -> None:
        self.arr = arr

    def __getitem__(self, i: Union[int, str]) -> Union[int, str]:
        if isinstance(i, int):
            return self.arr[i]
        if isinstance(i, str):
            return str(self.arr[int(i)])


arr = Array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
x: int = cast(int, arr[1])
y: str = cast(str, arr[2])  # typo. we want to assign arr["2"]

output:

bash

$ mypy --strict foo.py
$ echo $?
0

Using @overload can solve the problem. We can declare the return type explicitly.

python

from typing import Generic, List, Union, overload


class Array(object):
    def __init__(self, arr: List[int]) -> None:
        self.arr = arr

    @overload
    def __getitem__(self, i: str) -> str:
        ...

    @overload
    def __getitem__(self, i: int) -> int:
        ...

    def __getitem__(self, i: Union[int, str]) -> Union[int, str]:
        if isinstance(i, int):
            return self.arr[i]
        if isinstance(i, str):
            return str(self.arr[int(i)])


arr = Array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
x: int = arr[1]
y: str = arr["2"]

output:

bash

$ mypy --strict foo.py
$ echo $?
0

WARNING

Based on PEP 484, the @overload decorator just for type checker only, it does not implement the real overloading like c++/java. Thus, we have to implement one exactly non-@overload function. At the runtime, calling the @overload function will raise NotImplementedError.

python

from typing import List, Union, overload


class Array(object):
    def __init__(self, arr: List[int]) -> None:
        self.arr = arr

    @overload
    def __getitem__(self, i: Union[int, str]) -> Union[int, str]:
        if isinstance(i, int):
            return self.arr[i]
        if isinstance(i, str):
            return str(self.arr[int(i)])


arr = Array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
try:
    x: int = arr[1]
except NotImplementedError as e:
    print("NotImplementedError")

output:

bash

$ python foo.py
NotImplementedError

Stub Files

Learn More

For more examples and detailed explanations, see the Real Python guide on stub files.

Stub files just like header files which we usually use to define our interfaces in c/c++. In python, we can define our interfaces in the same module directory or export MYPYPATH=${stubs}

First, we need to create a stub file (interface file) for module.

bash

$ mkdir fib
$ touch fib/__init__.py fib/__init__.pyi

Then, define the interface of the function in __init__.pyi and implement the module.

python

# fib/__init__.pyi
def fib(n: int) -> int: ...

# fib/__init__.py

def fib(n):
    a, b = 0, 1
    for _ in range(n):
        b, a = a + b, b
    return a

Then, write a test.py for testing fib module.

python

# touch test.py
import sys

from pathlib import Path

p = Path(__file__).parent / "fib"
sys.path.append(str(p))

from fib import fib

print(fib(10.0))

output:

bash

$ mypy --strict test.py
test.py:10: error: Argument 1 to "fib" has incompatible type "float"; expected "int"

Typing ​

Without type check ​

With type check ​

Basic types ​

Functions ​

Classes ​

Generator ​

Asynchronous Generator ​

Context Manager ​

Asynchronous Context Manager ​

Avoid None access ​

Positional-only arguments ​

Multiple return values ​

Optional Type ​

Be careful of Optional ​

Be careful of casting ​

Forward references ​

Postponed Evaluation of Annotations ​

Type Alias ​

Using NewType ​

Using TypeVar as template ​

Using TypeVar and Generic as class template ​

Scoping rules for TypeVar ​

Restricting to a fixed set of possible types ​

TypeVar with an upper bound ​

@overload ​

Stub Files ​

Typing

Without type check

With type check

Basic types

Functions

Classes

Generator

Asynchronous Generator

Context Manager

Asynchronous Context Manager

Avoid `None` access

Positional-only arguments

Multiple return values

Optional Type

Be careful of `Optional`

Be careful of casting

Forward references

Postponed Evaluation of Annotations

Type Alias

Using NewType

Using `TypeVar` as template

Using `TypeVar` and `Generic` as class template

Scoping rules for `TypeVar`

Restricting to a fixed set of possible types

`TypeVar` with an upper bound

@overload

Stub Files